In Recent studies in systemic phonology, ed. 2009c. Looking to Hasans options for speaker in the textual relation system, the speaker attitude is [neutral]: the text has no obvious lexical selections that would be considered to function as overtly evaluative (Martin & White 2005), except in the paraphrase of the Iraqi president, already a much discredited figure. General introduction. Maleevi, Sinia. Halliday, M.A.K. Hasan, Ruqaiya. This paper explores ideology in the context of the architecture of human language, that is, with reference to key concepts in Hallidays theory, including realisation/stratification, instantiation, register and context of situation and of culture. These emergent conventions of wire service reporting, apparent as they were not only in the routinisation of news-work practices, were clearly helping to secure the codification of objectivity as a normative standard (Allan 1997: 306). London and New York: Continuum. Social factors in semantic variation.
In Semantic variation: Meaning in society and sociolinguistics. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The conduit metaphor: A case of frame conflict in our language about language. statement and While aspects of Hallidays theory have been adopted for the study of ideology in discourse - in particular via Critical Discourse Analysis - these applications of his ideas have not attempted to bring the full weight of Hallidays model to the problem of understanding the phenomenon and practical manifestation of ideology. Hasan, Ruqaiya. Halliday argues that some registers are open to more ideological contestation than other registers because of the features of their context of situation, a claim which invites linguists to explore the relationship of particular registers to particular ideologies. How do you mean?
The author declares that he/she has no competing interests. Tenor: Rethinking Interactant relations. Certain features of mode are also predicted on the basis of the text being displaced. This paper was first presented as a plenary paper at the First Halliday and Hasan International Forum on Language, held at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, under the auspices of the Halliday and Hasan Fund for the Study of Language and Other Systems of Meaning. Cookies policy. Thus, the text speaks to a stereotype, a socially defined category; all attributes of the interactant relations in this text - the relative status of speaker and addressee, the social distance which obtains between them, and the specific attributes of the addressee - are wholly constructed by the texts interior relations (Hasan 2016b: 266). I argue that while ideology is permeable with respect to register - the same ideology can be expressed across a variety of contexts - the concepts of context and register are crucial to showing the affordances of particular registers to the dissemination of specific ideologies. While this kind of category of addressee appears self-explanatory, the public of mass media is a product of historical, cultural, and technological evolution, in which the rise of news media has played a central role. Ideology: An introduction. Sociologists Boyd-Barrett and Rantanen describe news as a process that lies at the heart of modern capitalism, and a commodity gathered and distributed for the three purposes of political communication, trade and pleasure. Whereas the medieval peasantry generally had neither any interest in, nor the possibility of, politically engaging in the working of the polities they inhabited, the people of the early modern world were not only receptive to new political interpretations of their reality but were also able and willing to take an active part in these political processes (Maleevi 2010: 9-10). Reddy, Michael. Jonathan Webster, 352368. What kind of speaker produces this kind of text? A further dimension of the context, pertaining to field, is also relevant here. Volume 2 in the collected works of Ruqaiya Hasan, ed. Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Terhi Rantanen, 114. Bernstein, Basil. Mannheim argued that this interdependent system of meanings varies both in all its parts and in its totality from one historical period to another (Mannheim 1936: 6869). 2009b. The New York Times. Indeed, he suggests that when this view of language is taken - a view ever present in the field of linguistics - the resulting vision of language is so impoverished that serious questions about language can hardly even be raised, let alone imaginatively pursued (Halliday 2003c: 237). London: Equinox. As Halliday has argued, language is probabilistic: part of the meaning of lexicogrammatical selections is in their relative frequencies. Modes of meaning. In Critical Discourse Analysis: The critical study of language. Halliday, ed. 2009f. A fuller account of these issues would, I believe, be assisted through a reading of Weber (e.g.
But in all other respects, this kind of text shares other standard mode features of displaced registers Hasan outlines (Hasan 2015). War is accompanied by a focus on operations and the campaign; the actions of the agents of the belligerents will be construed as just doing their job and getting down to work.
Hasan, Ruqaiya. London and New York: Palgrave. In avoiding what might be considered a rational association, the ABC confirms a deep paradigm: drawing on the 100 million word, multi-generic, British National Corpus, the probability that a text with the word war will also include the word violence is 1% (Lukin forthcoming). This apparent conundrum is best approached by examining texts in relation to their register properties, and by extension, in relation to the context of situation they both realise and construe. Nairn, Tom. 2). If all language is ideological, and all forms of analysis are ideologically infused, how does one make progress on the linguistic analysis of ideology? Such descriptions of the cultural context help us understand and articulate the absent, imaginary addressee that this text both shapes and is shaped by.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2008. Jonathan Webster, 129. Firth, John R. 1957b. 2001. Hasan has produced the most robust analysis of a semantic variety, correlating most closely with speakers social position (Hasan 2009c). A history of news. Foucaults concept of discursive formation captures this feature of ideology, defining it as a regularity (an order, correlations, positions and functionings, transformations) between objects, types of statement, concepts, or thematic choices (Foucault 1972: 38). Lukin, Annabelle. Part of the specialised role of news readers is the capacity to adopt a certain kind of phonological patterning, one that heightens the newsworthy feel of the text (Lukin 2014b; van Leeuwen 1992). Nesbitt, Chris, and Guenter Plum. Hasan, Ruqaiya. Manage cookies/Do not sell my data we use in the preference centre. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1936. The history of a sentence. The language which construes this apparent impartiality and objectivity in news text itself has a rich history, which various scholars have attempted to sketch. Australian Journalism Review 36 (1): 2944. Hasan, Ruqaiya. This paradox, rather than hindering the study of ideology, invites the researcher to work explicitly with the concepts in ones theoretical model, and to test their usefulness in producing robust and revealing descriptions of the ideologies that shape human experience and behaviour. By using this website, you agree to our London and Oakville: Equinox. For Halliday, language is always agentive in the construction of reality, and by extension, is always ideological. At the lexicogrammatical level, strong lexical nodes act as a magnet for specific collocates; the nodes inner nature supports predictions about what will go with what (Hasan 2009e: 447). Rhythm and social context. Code, modalities, and the process of cultural reproduction: A model. In New developments in systemic linguistics, ed. Thus, ideologies cross registerial - and semiotic - boundaries. Wherefore context? Jonathan Webster, 116138. Despite the theoretical difficulties in delineating the concept, and the methodological difficulties in making it visible via analysis of concrete expressions of ideology, the term remains essential, in one form or another, to the many disciplines interested in understanding the process by which the outside becomes the inside, and the inside reveals itself and shapes the outside (Bernstein 1987: 563). Foucault, Michel. Rampton & Stauber (2003) provides some details of the mechanisms by which interested parties, including the US and UK governments, sort to invisibly direct media coverage of this event. The act of analysing ideology is, therefore, ideological, a conundrum known as Mannheims paradox. Jonathan Webster, 247354. Harlow, England: Longman. Whorf, Benjamin Lee. The concept of war is associated with the rational, purposeful, organised, and official use of force. 2014a. Further, Halliday accepts the implication of this view for academic scholarship, treating linguistic theories as also ideological.
And the power of language, its ideological power, derives from this central characteristic. 
The world in words: Semiotic mediation, tenor and ideology. In this account, Voloinov (18951936) describes the sign as the ideological phenomenon par excellence.
Marching to Iraq with Howard: The 2003 Iraq invasion on ABC-TV. My primary concern at this point is the concept of semantic variety, which is the product of speakers ideological stances, social positions, and complex social relations. The structural transformation of the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of Bourgeous society. You can also search for this author in Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Volume 9 in the collected works of M.A.K. 1992. Feinstein, 2011). In Proceedings from ISFC 35: Voices Around the World, eds. Taking realisation first of all - a relation Halliday describes as probably the most complex of all linguistic relations - text both realises and is realised by the context of situation, with context of situation modelled as a tripartite structure of field, tenor and mode. Book Barstow (2008) tracks some of the interpenetrations between media, the government and the defense industry: ex-military officials contracted to either or both the US government and arms manufacturers, presenting as independent military experts, projected the views of their government and of the military corporations they were paid by. And though ideology is a form of semantic variation that cuts across text types, the individual texts through which ideologies exert their force also simultaneously manifest register variation. Chapter Habermas, Jurgen. 2002. 3 (Hasan 2016a). 2001. Matthiessen, and Maria Herke, 106111. Human agency in its prosecution is obscured or mediated, via human collectives, abstract things and processes, by giving agency to technology (e.g. Terms and Conditions, While this text demonstrates the projection of a corporate voice, not all journalism can be characterised in this fashion.
Grammar is, in Hallidays view an ideological interpretant built into language (Halliday 2003a: 135). With a distant, unknowable addressee, no overlap between the production point and the reception point is possible. I say this despite the fact that the text gives space to Saddam Husseins charge that the US was committing crimes against humanity through this invasion: Lukin (2014a) shows that Iraqi perspectives were given a very minimal place in the ABC coverage of this invasion, and that it was overwhelmingly dominated by official Coalition spokespeople. The same register can be enacted by speakers with variant ideologies, and the resulting textual product will be sensitive to this variation. This total view of ideology came into European sociology via the work of Karl Mannheim (18931947). Correspondence to On the architecture of human language. That this is an ongoing event under the gaze of the international media has a further implication: it makes it an event which can be subject to media management.
Lukin (2014a) discusses the projection by the ABC of a nationalistic fervour in its reporting of this event. Lukin (forthcoming) explores a case study of distinct orientations to the construal of organized violence in media discourse, which is well explained by the tenets of Hasans model. Halliday, M.A.K. Social class, codes and communication. 5, a slightly revised and elaborated network for social roles, from Hasan 2015). Language, society and consciousness: Volume 1 in the collected works of Ruqaiya Hasan. The concept of ideology goes back over 200years to French philosopher, Destutt de Tracey, but the first semiotic account of ideology dates to 1929, with the publication of Voloinovs Marxism and the Philosophy of Language. Meanings in questions: A case study of the ABCs current affairs coverage of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Hasan, Ruqaiya. The veneer of impartiality involves the selection of dominant - the most probable - lexical choices. Across a larger corpus of ABC TV news reports, from which this text is chosen, the pattern in this text holds across a larger sample of news discourse pertaining to the 2003 Iraqi invasion (Lukin forthcoming). Jonathan Webster, 95126. These ideological antecedents, he writes: lie not in the formal grammars and truth-conditional semantics of the latter part of the century, but in a more functionally-oriented linguistics: that of Sapir and Whorf, Malinowski and Firth, Bhler, Mathesius and Trubetzkoy, Hjelmslev, Benveniste and Martinet, among many others (Halliday 2003b: 423). My analysis of another text from this corpus shows that textural relations allow the belligerents enacting the violence which defines this event as war to be dissociated, in one and the same text, from the acts of violence they are perpetrating (Lukin 2014b). Hasan, Ruqaiya. New York: Seminar Press. Jonathan Webster, 355374. 2003. Is all parole equally ideological? 2003b. 2022 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. The aim here is to understand what the language of a text is a product of, and what this text helps us understand about the nature of this context. Herausgegeben von Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, and Peter Trudgill, 563579. As Maleevi writes: the unprecedented structural and organisational transformation of social orders brought about by modernity have, as Nairn (1977) aptly puts it, invited ordinary people into history. 2009a. Special Volume of the Philological Society. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan, Language, Context and Text: Aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective.
The specific text (see Table1) is from a corpus of TV news reports, from Australias public broadcaster, the ABC. Halliday complements the picture of the realisation-stratification relation with instantiation, the concept by which Halliday relates Malinowskis terms context of situation and context of culture. van Leeuwen, Theo. The two parts meet around the principles relating to the recognition and participation in contexts of situation - a point of contact which is simultaneously psychological (concerned with internal/internalised phenomena), sociological (mapping the social relations which correlate with orientations to context) and linguistic (postulating the existence of semantic variation, that is, configurations of meaning construed by options in the linguistic system and sensitive to contextual relations). 2003d. Michael Bromley and Tom OMalley, 296329. Probabilities in a systemic-functional grammar: The clause complex in English. One text is no evidence for a particular variety - but I describe elsewhere (Lukin, 2008; Lukin, 2013; Lukin forthcoming) the powerful effect of choosing war as the unifying abstraction to explain the phenomena being reported. Civilizations, empires, and wars: A quantitative history of war.
Journalists are professionals trained and qualified through university study (the University of Missouri was the first to establish a specific school of Journalism, in 1908 see (Stephens 2007)). Volume 2 in the collected works of Ruqaiya Hasan, ed. War is an instance of a strong lexical node (Hasan 2009e), which attracts other predictable semantic features (Lukin forthcoming). Lukin (2012) explores the use of military experts in ABC current affairs coverage of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. For a term to have meaning, it must be possible to specify what, in particular circumstances, would count as the other of it. While registers are the environments for the manifestation of ideology, the wellspring of ideology is the social structure (Hasan 2005a). A synopsis of linguistic theory, 1930-1955. Andrew Ortony, 284310. Halliday, ed. Volume 4 in the collected works of Ruqaiya Hasan, ed.
The ABC is run by its board, a committee whose authority comes through legislation (1983 ABC Act), which prescribes its duties. While Hallidays linguistics is widely applied in CDA - Wodak argues an understanding of the basic claims of Hallidays grammar and his approach to linguistic analysis is essential for a proper understanding of CDA (Wodak 2001: 8) - Halliday does not share Faircloughs views. The identity of a text. 2010b. London and New York: Continuum.
London: Equinox.
Functional Linguistics Fairclough argues that only certain uses of language and other symbolic forms are ideological; that discursive practices are ideologically invested in so far as they incorporate significations which contribute to sustaining or restructuring power relations (Fairclough 1992: 91). Hasan, Ruqaiya. For Whorf, configurative rapport was primarily a grammatical phenomenon, though with semantic consequences. 2009e. It is possible, then, to argue, that different forms of the text-in-context relation differ in their ideological affordances. Discourse and social change. Rather than try to avoid Mannheims paradox, Halliday explicitly describes his theoretical predecessors as his ideological antecedents. It never uses this term itself. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Professional Practice 9 (1): 127147. Hasan, Ruqaiya. In Hasans concept of semantic variation, this relation is inverted. Boyd, Andrew.
The linguistic system is ever expanding: it offers speakers the means to construe the Coalition invasion as, for instance, aggression or violence. In Semantic variation: Meaning in society and sociolinguistics. The emergence of news media, first as newspapers from the seventeenth century (the first edition of an English newspaper was printed in Amsterdam in 1620 (Stephens 2007)) then via radio and television in the twentieth century, and digital platforms in the late 20th and into the twenty-first century, both produced and required a public sphere (Allan 1997; Habermas 1991; Maleevi 2010). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40554-017-0050-8, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40554-017-0050-8. Bernstein attributes the key set of relations here as class relations; Hasan adds to relations of class those of race, ethnicity and gender. News has long been a business. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company Incorporated. Barstow, David. London: New Left Books. The text is the preview element of the news bulletin from 20/03/2003 announcing the beginning of the war against Iraq. Hasan has attempted to model the interconnections of social structure and ideology in text see Fig. Halliday, ed. Jonathan Webster, 41118. Journal of Language and Politics 12 (3): 424444. These duties include ensuring that the gathering and presentation by the Corporation of news and information is accurate and impartial according to the recognized standards of objective journalism (ABC Act, 1983; emphasis added). Thus, the news reader speaks this text, but does not voice it as the unique individual he or she undoubtedly is. Hasan (Hasan 2009f) proposes the system performance of action, and suggests two primary options: [bounded] to describe a context in which a single interaction completes the social process, and [continuing] for those in which a sequence of interactions is involved. More specifically in relation to the problem of ideology, we also want to consider how this text-in-context configuration provides a particular and powerful niche for particular and powerful kinds of ideological dissemination. 1991. Bourke, Joanna. This absence of appraisal lexis is explained then not by individual choices of the individuals responsible for the construction of this individual text: they are part and parcel of its semo-history (Halliday 2003e). Google Scholar. 1992. The corpus consists of all news reports broadcast by the ABC via their 7pm evening news bulletin between 20/03/2003 to 02/04/2003 (a 14-day period, c. 45, 000 words). Sydney, NSW: ISFC 35th Organising Committee. Figure1 sets out two key relations in Hallidays architecture of language, realisation and instantiation, both of which are deeply relevant to understanding how and why ideology is both pervasive and powerful beyond what we fully understand. In this text such designations are not taken up. London: Sage. The language will have bureaucratised overtones, since war is the expression of the cumulative bureaucratisation of coercion (Maleevi 2010). The designation war validates the use of force for the contest of power. In other words, the bureaucratic organisation of modern states, the spread of secular, democratic and liberal ideas, the dramatic increase in levels of literacy, the expansion of cheap and affordable publishing and the press, the extension of the military draft and the gradual development of the public sphere, among others, have all fostered the emergence of a new, much more politicised citizenry. To pursue this claim, I turn now to the analysis of one kind of text-in-context, to consider its place in the maintenance of ideological meanings which legitimate and naturalise the use of organised violence in pursuit of geopolitical ends. This fact of the context will predict not only other selections pertaining to tenor - for instance, that the social distance must be [distant] rather than [close] - but features also relevant to the other two parameters.
London and New York: Routledge. 1991. News has enabled the construction of ever larger mass audiences. In Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik: An international handbook of the science of society, ed. Journal of Functional Linguistics 1 (9). London: Sage. A text construed and transmitted to a large, passive and largely trusting audience by a corporate voice, subject to government oversight and pressure, governments who are increasingly connected to the military industrial complex, is the perfect design for the dissemination of a message that validates the pursuit of geopolitics via organised violence. Jonathan Webster, 256274.
Sydney: Hodder. Semantic variation does not simply signal ideology; rather, this is how language participates in creating, maintaining and changing ideological stances (Hasan 2016a: 120). In Continuum companion to systemic functional linguistics, ed. It is clear that ideologies cross registerial boundaries, since the same ideological cluster of meanings can be found across many registers. Halliday and Jonathan Webster, 166189. In Methods of critical discourse, ed. The particular assemblage of strata and the realisation relations which obtain between them in Hallidays model give us a picture of a linguistic system deeply rooted in our bodies and in many and our various contexts of living (see Fig. This neutrality is no doubt part of what makes the ABC Australias most trusted news source (see Essential Poll: http://www.essentialvision.com.au/trust-in-media-8). 1979. Harlow, England: Longman. This harmony between the register of news and ideologies pertaining to organised violence explains the long interest it has held for linguists and discourse analysts.
'The brain gives us a grip on our world, and the world a grip on us We are in the world and the world is in us.'. These origins of the principles for interaction, viewed sociologically, are traced to control over communal resources, in interaction with relations of class, race, ethnicity and gender. For Fairclough, it is possible to transcend ideology, and thus to avoid Mannheims paradox: Ideologies arise in class societies characterised by relations of domination, and in so far as human beings are capable of transcending such societies they are capable of transcending ideology. But this work does not exhaust the role of speaker. 2003a. London and New York: Continuum. November 28: 2008. This particular text is for an Australian audience, and despite its putative neutrality (see below), clearly shapes the experience of these events for its audience. The ontogenesis of ideology: An interpretation of mother child talk. News, thanks in particular to the rise of transnational news agencies, such as Havas, AP, and Reuters, contributed to processes such as the construction of national identity and to imperialism and the control of colonies (Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen 1998: 12). Halliday, M.A.K. The sociology of war and violence. In On language and linguistics. Wodak, Ruth.
For Halliday, as for Voloinov, language is ideologically saturated. It predicts a largely intransitive construal of the violence - in the text the war on Iraq begins, as if by itself; Australias FA-18 Hornets are simply operating over Iraq. Lukin, Annabelle. The data from her project also permitted observations about early socialisation and the process of articulating roles based on gender, a further illustration that semantic variation is not simply indexical; rather it is non-arbitrarily related to ideologies of gender and social class (Hasan 2009d: 400). Weber, Max. 1987. London: Routledge. London: Pluto Press. In On language and linguistics. Of course, this register does not do it on its own. This example text, as an instance of an inherently displaced register (Hasan 2015), illustrates Hasans point. New York: Picador. Volume 3 in the collected works of M.A.K. These elements of the semiotic structure of context are a reflex of the metafunctional organisation of language: that is, these vectors of context resonate not simply in the instance of a text-in-context configuration, but are part of the organisation of language as a system, having been central to its evolution. Collected Works of M. A. K. Volume 9.
2007. The particular text selected here comes from Australias public broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC).
Sinia Maleevi and Iain MacKenzie, 87110. In The globalization of news, ed. 2005a.
Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer, 113. News corporations function as agencies within what Bernstein refers to as the field of symbolic control; such agencies regulate the means, contexts and legitimate possibilities of cultural reproduction (Bernstein 1990: 46). Volume 3 in the collected works of M.A.K. The people, things and objects subject to refraction through this news report are tied to nation states, and tied up with the most powerful men and agencies in our world. This total view of ideology in Mannheims work produced what the anthropologist Clifford Geetz described as Mannheims paradox. In defining her concept of semantic variation, Hasan drew on Whorfs notion of configurative rapport (Whorf 1956). Billig, Michael. In Papers in linguistics 1934195, 190215. New York: Oxford University Press. London: Equinox. Reprinted in J. J. Webster (ed.) The material channel has a register-specific, ritualised, quality. Halliday, M.A.K. 
An ideology forms through repeated manifestations of a pattern of meaning/s. 
