An image of a fracking diagram, Gas Fracking Infographic. Net Positive Suction Head, Oil and gas metering or measurement is the phase along, A centrifugal pump is a type of industrial pump that, Industrial pumps are essential devices required in every phase of, In-line blending is a viable alternative to the conventional in-tank, Oilfield operators looking to thrive in this competitive industry must, Steam distillation (also known as steam stripping) is an old, PumpWorks, a DXP Company, just launched an updated version of, Pilot plants offer a host of benefits to the oil, In downstream oil and gas operations, separation of the various, A flow meter is a test device used to measure, Over the life cycle of a well, there are three, Instrumentation and control refer to the analysis, measurement, and control, A major Midstream company approved the construction of a new, Recently Shelter Works was called upon to build a two, The Balance of Plant (BoP) is a power engineering term, The entire oil and gas energy value chain can be, In the face of stringent global legislation from organizations like, Vast amounts of natural gas produced from the hydrocarbon extraction, IFS received ISO 9001:2015 certification in November of 2018. The actual high-pressure pumping of a frack stage lasts only a few hours, and several frack stages may be performed over three to five days. Youngstown sits above the northeast Ohio seismic zone, a region of moderately frequent naturally occurring earthquakes, and geologists determined that the well activated a previously unknown fault. Historically, most fractured wells were drilled vertically and the target reservoirs were sandstone or limestone. The method successfully increased well production rates and the practice quickly spread. Visit our, Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage A New Approach, Pre-Combustion vs. Post-Combustion Carbon Capture Technologies, Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Techniques and Helpful Technology, The Rising Need for ESG in The Energy Industry, The Importance of CCUS In the Oil and Gas Industry, 5 Little-Known Benefits of Modular Process Systems, The Top Oil and Gas Applications for Heat Exchangers, 5 Modular Skid Fabrication Services You Didnt Know About, How CO2 Pumping Helps with Natural Gas Processing CCUS Solutions, Industrial Nitrogen Gas: Common Uses and Products, The Rising Need of Siloxane Removal Systems for Biogas Cleaning. Fossil Sediments. Fig. (B) Nonplanar fractures with 2 sets of natural fractures under permeability of 0.01md. Based on theseresults, the maximum effective fracture half-length is estimated to be approximately 500ft (Fig. The simulation takes into account earth stresses, fluid rheology, proppant properties, pipe friction, and other parameters and provides an estimation of the resultant geometry, number of fracture propagating (for horizontal wells), fracture conductivity, and fluid efficiency. For this, scientists had first assumed the hydraulic fracturing process would occur in a homogeneous and isotropic formation that would lead to a symmetric, bi-wing fracture from the point or line source of the injecting fluid. Comparison of transient flow behavior of these two fracture geometries is shown in Fig. Single particle settling velocity, vs in Newtonian fluids can be expressed as Eq. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. Hydraulic fracture geometry is a complex function of initial reservoir stress conditions (global and local), reservoir rock properties such as heterogeneous and anisotropic rock mechanical properties (Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio), permeability, porosity, natural fracture system, and operational conditions such as injection rate, volume, and pressure. Frac sand is the proppant most commonly used today but aluminum beads, ceramic beads, sintered bauxite and other materials have also been used. Today there are a variety of natural and synthetic products that are sold under the name of "frac sand.". (1.320). Finally, it is important to estimate the number of propagating fractures, fracture geometry and fracture conductivity. But the small size of the pores in shale and their low degree of connectedness (i.e., low permeability) usually made extracting hydrocarbons from shale uneconomical. Figure 9.26. 15.1 shows the schematic representation of fracture geometry in the KGD model. This is unlikely for several reasons. HF, Hydraulic fracture. These models use accurate data describing the layers of the fracturing formation as well as the layers above and below the zone of interest [37]. 3.48 presents the four time periods: (a) fracture linear flow with a 1/2 slope straight line for pressure and pressure derivative curves; (b) bilinear flow with a 1/4 slope straight line for pressure and pressure derivative curves; (c) formation linear flow with a 1/2 slope straight line for pressure and pressure derivative curves; (d) pseudoradial flow, which stabilizes at 0.5 line in the pressure derivative log-log plot (Bourdet et al., 1983). Fig. Also, the information such as effective fracture half-length and fracture height can be the input for infill well placement optimization. 8.33. The fracture conductivity profile confirms that behavior. For shale gas simulation, the important gas transport mechanisms such as gas slippage, gas diffusion, and gas desorption can be simulated using the semianalytical model. And economic challenge or rising fuel prices and oil increase fuel concept or painful increasing crude petroleum and fossil energy with 3D, Flat layout infographic design. They believe that this information should be kept private to protect their competitive research. where the units used are k in md, h in ft, P in psi, q in STB/D, B in bbl/STB, in cp, t in day, ct in psi1, xf in ft. When the water is pumped into the well, the entire length of the well is not pressurized. Cinco-Ley and Samaniego-V (1981) proposed four flow periods for production of a vertically fractured well, which can be characterized based on different slops in the log-log graph of the dimensionless pressure drop (pwD) and pressure drop derivative (pwD) versus the dimensionless time (tDxf). In addition, for gas flow in the fracture, the key effects of non-Darcy flow and geomechanics (pressure-dependent fracture conductivity) can be taken into account. At Cross Section with Rig Extracting Oil and, Petroleum Oil and Gas Formation Landing Page Template. As shown, the bilinear flow and the pseudoradial flow exhibit for the planar fracture. Figure 9.24. 1594 West North Temple, Suite 3110 All rights reserved. Fracking is not a new technique; it dates back to the 1940s. However, energy companies have shown interest in several shale formations in Utah, and Utahs first commercial horizontally drilled natural gas well began production in the Uinta Basin in late 2010. Scientists Characters Presenting Time Line of Fossil Sediments. The result is. Fig. As shown above, in the leak-off dominated limit, we have, The net pressure and fracture width in this case develops as (see e.g. 15.3 shows the schematic representation of fracture geometry assuming the penny-shaped model. (B) Curving nonplanar fracture. Fig. (B) Curving nonplanar fracture. The grid block size is set to 20ft20ft40ft in x, y, z directions, respectively. Who Is the Largest Oil Producing Country in the World? The nonplanar fracture geometry with 2 sets of natural fractures improves the connectivity and sweep efficiency between two wells, which can be clearly illustrated based on global CO2 molecule distribution in Fig. 8.11). (C) Planar fractures under permeability of 0.1md. (A) Primary production under permeability of 0.01md.
The fracture width as shown in the figure has been enlarged by a factor of 100. Furthermore, in cases where we can characterize those reservoir properties by other methods, the reservoir property information from the workflow can be integrated with other techniques such as petrophysical interpretation and core data to produce a more comprehensive analysis. (B) The EDFM method. When the pumps are turned off and the fractures collapse, these crush-resistant Commonly Asked Questions About Utah's Great Salt Lake & Lake Bonneville, Rock, Mineral, and Fossil Collecting Rules. 8.36. The information of drainage area and volume could help engineers to optimize well spacing in shale-oil reservoirs. Specifically, it can be used to characterize fracture propagation and fluid migration in shale and coal-bed methane (CBM) hydraulic fracturing and development of enhanced geothermal systems, assess the integrity of caprocks and reservoir deformation in carbon dioxide storage, helping to manage potential seismic risks during geo-energy production [7, 21, 22]. Another benefit is that we can obtain dimensionless fracture conductivity (FCD), as shown in Fig. Chemicals are often added to the water used in hydraulic fracturing. For case 4, the incremental oil recovery factor is only about 2.6%, which is lower than the other three cases. by the lack of a numerical prefactor in the first term), but a convenient way of obtaining linearity in ptip when it dominates and linearity in the viscous pressure drop when it dominates. Renewable Energy Growth Could Renewables Power the World? As shown, the incremental RF of cases 1 and 4 is lower than that of cases 2 and 3. Water-based conventional fracturing fluids can be classified as noncross-linked fluids and cross-linked fluids. Four flow periods for a vertically fractured well (Yu et al., 2016a). Four fracture geometries were designed and shown in Fig. Three numerical reservoir simulators including CMG (Computer Modeling Group Ltd., 2012), ECLIPSE (Schlumberger, 2012), and UTCOMP (The University of Texas at Austin, 2014), and the semianalytical model developed in Chapter 3 are used to build reservoir model including multiple hydraulic fractures. If a rock unit was 100 feet thick, it would be have a pay zone of 100 feet in a vertical well. 8.38B, it can be seen that the final recovery factor is less than the primary oil recovery factor except the nonplanar fracture geometry with 2 sets of natural fractures. There were reports of ground subsidence and induced earthquakes in oil fields as early as 1926 [11]. Vector illustration, Resource Exploration and Production Landing Page Template. After almost 40 years of, IFS is pleased to announce that Steven P. Ramsey is, IFS recently completed the design, fabrication, wet testing and shipment, IFS recently supplied ametering skid to Tallgrass Energy in Wright,, Welcome to PumpWorks Castings in Lufkin, Texas USA. Hence, the curving nonplanar fracture geometry jeopardizes the well productivity compared to the planar fracture geometry, which should be examined carefully in production forecasting of tight oil reservoirs. What Are VOCs? Pressure profile for a fracture without leak-off. In contrast, the plug and perforation method requires wireline intervention for each stage and uses an explosive gun to open three to six sections of casing at the same time. Comparison of BHP variation with time of the two fracture geometries (Yu et al., 2016a). The fracture width and fracture permeability distribution of these two fracture geometries along fracture half-length are shown in Fig.
As shown in Fig. (B) CO2 Huff-n-Puff under permeability of 0.01md. Instead, plugs are inserted to isolate the portion of well where the fractures are desired. Let us first assume that the fracturing fluid is the same as the reservoir fluid. Only this section of the well receives the full force of pumping. Comparison of oil recovery factor for primary production and CO2 Huff-n-Puff between different fracture geometries (Zuloaga, 2016). We have simplified and assumed that the total fracture height and length contribute to leak-off. 11.8), irrespective of the leak-off regime. Hence, more sets of natural fractures significantly improve sweep efficiency in Fig. HF, Hydraulic fracture; NF, natural fracture. Fig. It can be seen that the nonplanar fracture geometry with 2 sets of natural fractures has a higher CO2 molecule concentration than the planar fracture geometry under the low permeability of 0.01 md in Fig. Based on the second geometry, we added one set of 300 natural fracture and two sets of 600 natural fractures for the third and fourth geometry in Fig. This case represents the nonplanar, Hydraulic Fracture Treatment, Optimization, and Production Modeling, Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources Handbook, A Special Focus on Formation Damage in Unconventional Reservoirs, Formation Damage During Improved Oil Recovery, Proppant transport and placement are important parameters controlling, Shale-oil well with and without natural fractures, Assisted History Matching for Unconventional Reservoirs, As there is no direct measurement of effective, Exploration and Drilling in Shale Gas and Oil Reserves, of the fluid leak-off characteristics of the formation. Fig. Schematic diagram of a fractured horizontal gas well completed in the Mancos Shale of the Uinta Basin. There are three common fracture modeling methods introduced based on these assumptions: (1) the Khristianovic-Geertsma de Klerk (KGD) model, (2) the Perkins and Kern (PKN) model, and (3) the radial fracture geometry or penny-shaped model (Abe et al., 1976). In reality the width increases with length so that the length growth is a little slower, see below. When the water pressure was reduced, the sand grains "propped" the fracture open and allowed a flow of natural gas through the fractures and into the well bore. The one instance where a causal link may exist between fracking and water contamination is at Pavillion, Wyoming, according to a draft report by the Environmental Protection Agency in December 2011. Comparison of global CO2 molecule distribution for CO2 flooding between planar fractures and nonplanar fractures with 2 sets of natural fractures (Zuloaga, 2016). What Is CCUS Technology & How Does It Work? In this chapter, we focus on the methods and techniques of microseismic monitoring to characterize natural gas reservoirs. Fig. (B) Case 2: Diagonal fractures. 15.2 shows the schematic of fracture geometry in a PKN model. The pipe on the bottom shows holes created by the explosive charges mounted inside the pipe. The third model used to simulate hydraulic fracture propagation in a 2D plane is called the penny-shaped or radial fracture model. Since a fracture may include several formations, this need not be the case. 8.37. A variety of proppants are used in hydraulic fracturing. But, as with many aspects of the energy business, controversy has accompanied it. The fracture half-length for two outer and inner fractures is 295 and 125ft, respectively. 8.38A and C. When considering CO2 flooding under low permeability of 0.01 md in Fig. These include: 1) Fractures produced in the well might extend directly into shallow rock units that are used for drinking water supplies. (11.21) and (11.26) yields the fracture length. Image by Doug Duncan, USGS. It is done by pumping liquids down a well into subsurface rock units under pressures that are high enough to fracture the rock. As shown, no grid refinement nearby fractures is needed for the EDMF approach compared to the LGR approach, resulting in less number of grid blocks and higher computational efficiency for the EDFM method to simulate production with multiple fractures. What Is Balance of Plant in Power Plants? Here we give an introduction to how analytical expressions for fracture length, width and internal fracture pressure can be obtained in the basic simple analytical models, based on Smith and Shlyapobersky (2000). As pressure builds up in this portion of the well, water opens fractures, and the driving pressure extends the fractures deep into the rock unit. This parameter is used to calibrate the Mechanical Earth Model (Suarez-Rivera etal., March 26, 2013b). Earthquakes caused by fracking are another concern. (C) Nonplanar fractures with one set of 300 natural fractures. (11.30) allows us to replace w in Eq. This means if we simplify the system of HFs with NFs to include only HFs and increased matrix permeability, we may misunderstand that the effectiveness of HFs is still low and can be improved by varying parameters regarding proppants during fracturing operation. Since the 1940s, microseismic technology has been successively applied to monitor stability of underground mines, waste fluid injection, extraction of geothermal energy, and hydraulic fracturing [8]. The oil production at 1000 days for the nonplanar fracture decreases by 24%, compared to the planar fracture. 8.32C, the incremental oil recovery factor of case 3 is 4.5%, which is larger than that of case 1. Comparison of well performance of the two fracture geometries (Yu et al., 2016a). where the right-hand expression is the stiff frame limit, Eq. (B) Case 2. Mitchell Energy solved this problem by hydraulic fracturing the Barnett Shale to create a network of interconnected pore spaces that enabled a flow of natural gas to the well. By following the links on this site, the reader can find information on more than 400 hydraulically fractured wells in Utah. 8.38. However, Congress recently directed the EPA to investigate the safety of fracking regarding drinking water. 8.32A and B. Fig. In all hydraulic fracturing models, the hydraulic fracture propagation is a function of injection of fracturing fluid Q0 from the injection point or injection line representing the well perforations. PO BOX 146100 9.8, 9.10, and 9.13. Comparison of global CO2 molecule distribution for CO2 Huff-n-Puff between planar fractures and nonplanar fractures with 2 sets of natural fractures (Zuloaga, 2016). Illustration of fracture shapes for the PKN and KGD models. Fig. Fig. Power Plant NOx Reduction SCR vs SNCR Technology Which is better? For the first well in the unit, fracture wings are symmetrical. Fracturing simulators evaluate the most productive zones for hydrocarbon recovery [38]. (11.34). (A) Planar fractures under permeability of 0.01md. 11.13. Figure 9.25. (11.29) to eliminate wmax. 2) The casing of a well might fail and allow fluids to escape into shallow rock units used for drinking water supplies. Fracking Oil Diagram. What Is a Heater Treater in O&G and How Does It Work? The orientation of one set of natural fractures is almost parallel to the horizontal wellbore and another set is oriented perpendicular to the horizontal wellbore. There are a number of environmental concerns related to hydraulic fracturing. 8.34. 3.45. The fluid contains proppants, in many cases, gels and other components, which may give it a reasonably high but rate-dependent viscosity (50200 cP). Conductivity is similar for both wings. 8.35C and D, respectively. Comparison of RF of Primary Production, After CO2 Huff-n-Puff and CO2-Contact Area Between Different Cases (Zuloaga, 2016). 8.39A and B. Labeled educational process principle with geological ground layers vector, Pain At The Gas Pump. Similarly, the primary oil RF, oil RF after CO2 flooding, incremental oil RF, and CO2-contact area were listed in Table 8.8. Water is the driving fluid used in the hydraulic fracturing process. Left: match attempt assuming that only one fracture is propagating. Some of thefrack fluid is retrieved from the well before natural gas production begins. A step down tests before the main treatment (prior to sand stages) can be very useful. Pumps and diesel engines ready for the frac: Photo of a hydraulic fracturing operation being conducted at a drilling pad in the Marcellus Shale gas play of southwestern Pennsylvania. The idea of microseismic monitoring originates from earthquake seismology. The motivation is that when performing stress tests in open boreholes, it is also necessary to know approximately what volume to pump (see Sections 11.5 and 8.3). What Is Biofuel? Fracking Process Steps, Factors Affecting Performance Pumping Solids, Net Positive Suction Head for Centrifugal Pumps, Metering and Measurement of Oil and Gas and How It Works, Centrifugal Pump Preventative Maintenance Procedures & Schedules, Types of Pumps in Oil and Gas Industry Upstream, Midstream, Downstream, What Is In-line Blending? 3.47. Davud Davudov, Bin Yuan, in Formation Damage During Improved Oil Recovery, 2018. Comparison of incremental oil recovery factor for different cases (Zuloaga et al., 2016). The pore water is usually a brine with significant amounts of dissolved solids. The fluid creates fractures about 1/10 of an inch wide, commonly widening natural fractures and exploiting weaknesses in the rock. However, a similar CO2 molecule concentration is observed between these two fracture geometries under the high permeability of 0.1md in Fig. (B) CO2 Huff-n-Puff under permeability of 0.01 md. The transient flow regime analysis for these two fracture geometries with finite fracture conductivity is also investigated. Rock units such as the Bakken Shale of North Dakota and the Niobrara Shale of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska and Wyoming are now yielding significant amounts of oil from hydraulic fracturing. Well spacing is given by 1020ft. After 3 years of primary production, one well is converted to CO2 injector and another well continues to produce until the end of production time (18years in total). And economic fuel challenge as price rise or oil increase and fuel at the pump idea for crude petroleum and fossil energy due to market, Gas Economic Challenge. (11.30) that the fracture width is much smaller than its length. A schematic illustration of the two models is given in Fig. Erling Fjr, Rasmus Risnes, in Developments in Petroleum Science, 2021. When pumping stops these fractures quickly snap closed, and the water used to open them is pushed back into the borehole, back up the well and is collected at the surface. 3.45. However, when compared to nonplanar fracture geometry without natural fractures under high permeability of 0.1 md, the incremental oil recovery factor has a small increase from 7.7% to 8.2% and 8.8% for planar fractures with one set and two sets of natural fractures, respectively. Labeled educational process principle with fissures, shale and gas flow vector, Hydraulic fracturing as oil extraction with water pressure outline diagram. Fracturing simulators are used to provide detailed schematics of fracture geometries and distributions, which are used in the optimization of fracture treatments. The Barnett Shale contained enormous amounts of natural gas; however, the Barnett rarely produced natural gas in commercial quantities. To model this complicated process, specific assumptions have been made to simplify the problem while capturing the major characteristics of hydraulic fracture geometry. Compared with conventional seismic exploration, microseismic monitoring utilizes passive sources instead of artificially induced seismic sources and belongs to passive seismic techniques. The fracture height is constant and independent of the fracture length. Relative permeability curves of all history-matching solutions with the best case of (A) case 1 HFs only and (B) case 3 HFs and full realization of NFs (HF+full NF) (Tripoppoom et al., 2020). (A) Planar fracture with varying width. However, if the well was steered horizontal and stayed horizontal for 5000 feet through the target formation, then the length of the pay zone was fifty times longer than the pay zone of a vertical well. However, for open hole stress tests, the fracture is normally short compared to the height, and hence the KGD model should give a better approximation. The intensity of induced seismicity is very small, the magnitude of which is usually smaller than 0, so it is referred to as microseismicity or microseismic events.. Fig. This is relevant for wall-building or filter-cake building fracturing fluids and represents the initial loss before the filter cake is effective. 9.24, from this AHM workflow by calculating from fracture conductivity, fracture half-length, and matrix permeability values of each realization. One is planar fracture geometry with varying fracture width, another is curving nonplanar fracture geometry and there is a severe fracture width restriction around the wellbore. This implies that the PKN model is more used in conventional hydraulic fracture modelling, where the fracture is long compared to the fracture height. Natural Resources Map & Bookstore Constant CO2 injection rate of 1000 MSCF/day is used for CO2 Huff-n-Puff with three cycles (one cycle consists of 1year of injection, 1month of soaking, and 4years of production) after 4years of primary production. Cinco-Ley and Samaniego-V (1981) reported that the formation linear flow only occurs in the fracture with the large dimensionless conductivity such as 300. The higher this effective pressure measured during the hydraulic fracturing, the better well productivity is expected. First, we performed CO2 Huff-n-Puff and presented the comparison of oil recovery factor between different fracture geometries under low permeability of 0.01 md and high permeability of 0.1 md in Fig. Some thicken the water into a gel that is more effective at opening fractures and carrying proppants deep into the rock unit. The flowing BHP is 1800psi. The term microseismic was originally introduced to describe a method for monitoring small-scale seismic disturbances in underground mines [9]. The IFS daily newsletter covering the latest process engineering news. IFS Supplies 30, 20 & 16 Metering Packages for Major Midstream Company. High net pressures are required to facilitate breakdown of multiple clusters. An example of FPHM is shown in Fig. (B) Nonplanar fractures with 2 sets of natural fractures under permeability of 0.01md. Fig. Many companies voluntarily post the composition of fluids on the website http://fracfocus.org. 3) Accidental spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids or fluids expelled during a fracturing job might seep into the ground or contaminate surface water. Instantaneous hence refers to the fact that this period is normally short relative to the total pumping time. The fracture width generated is therefore a function of effective stress, which is the difference between the pore pressure and minimum principal stress 0 (Pe = Pf0). To properly place proppants inside created fractures (especially far from the perforations), fracturing fluid should maintain sufficient viscoelasticity to keep the proppant in suspension. Fracturing simulators, such as MFracSuite by Baker Hughes, provide real-time data of the fracture geometry as well as wellbore heat transfer, proppant transport, and perforation erosion. The main environmental concern contributing to the controversy over fracking is that natural gas and frack fluids could migrate along the fractures and enter groundwater used for domestic or agricultural purposes. Typical range of values for Clo are from 105 to 102 m/min. Biodiesel Guide Sources, Production, Uses, & Regulations, Potential Sources of Biogas and Main Uses of Biogas. The only difference between these two fracture geometries is the angle between fracture initiation direction and the maximum horizontal stress: 0 degrees for the planar fracture geometry and 70 degrees for the nonplanar fracture geometry. As shown, there are small differences of primary oil recovery factor. (11.27) and assume the constant width w, then we see that L increases linearly with time. In the KGD model, an elliptical horizontal cross-section and rectangular vertical cross-section are assumed where the fracture width is independent of the fracture height and is constant in the vertical direction. (A) Planar fractures. Unlike the KGD model, the PKN model assumes a fracture height much smaller than the fracture length. 8.31. (a) Step down test analysis/total near wellbore loses (red, black in print versions)/perforation friction (green, dark gray in print versions)/tortuosity loses (blue, darker gray in print versions). Fracking, Oil derrick infographic. When the rock fractured, the rush of water into the newly-opened pore space would carry sand grains deep into the rock unit. Fig. PumpWorks Castings, IFS recently provided (6) Well Head Lease Automated Custody Transfer, The Sakhalin Islandis home to one of the largest oil, IFS recently completed start up and commissioning for the following, IFS provides McDermott International (MDR) with the design, materials, fabrication,, Harry Agbo with the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation and Lukman, IFS provides McDermott International with the design, materials, fabrication, testing,, Pumpworks, IFSs sister company introduces a complete line of API, https://vimeo.com/230360711/dedb9c97ff Integrated Flow Solutions was contracted by Savage Services of, In 2010, Integrated Flow Solutions (IFS) obtained ISO 9001:2008 certification,, Integrated Flow Solutions LLC (IFS), which specializes in the design, Project Overview Integrated Flow Solutions was contracted by Targa Midstream, Project Overview Integrated Flow Solutions was contracted by Savage Services, The Offshore Technical Conference (OTC) is an annual oil &, When Upstream Oil & Gas companies drill for hydrocarbons, water, The IFS Operations Group is implementing Kaizen 5S workplace organization, Once again, IFS was featured in Business in Focus magazine., In 2011, IFSs longtime partner, Craymond Nigeria Limited (CNL) and, Three years after expanding sales operations to the Middle East.
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