CSTM is a mental buffer and processor in which current perceptual stimuli and their associated concepts from long term memory (LTM) are represented briefly, allowing meaningful patterns or structures to be identified (Potter, 1993, 1999, 2009).
The findings with sentences versus lists or scrambled sentences strongly support the CSTM assumption that each word can be identified and understood with an 83- to 100-ms exposure, even when it is part of a continuing series of words.
(See Demo 3 in Potter, 2009, for a demonstration.)
Scholarpedia 5, 3015. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License, which permits non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in other forums, provided the original authors and source are credited. Luck, S. J., and Vogel, E. K. (1997). 28, 11491162. Lawrence, D. H. (1971a).
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. As we predicted, that word was frequently intruded in recall, as long as the sentence meaning as a whole was consistent with the substitution. Cognit.
The power of these two factors selective attention that is defined by conceptual properties of the target, and the presence of potential conceptual structure is felt early in processing, before conventional STM or working memory for the stimuli has been established, justifying the claim that CSTM is separate from those forms of working memory. 
Perform. But such experiences in which we are aware of momentary thoughts that were immediately lost seem to be the exception, rather than the rule. Bransford, J. D., and Johnson, M. K. (1972). 18, 645659. Psychol. In another block they only reported the two target words. We regarded this as an overt analog of lexical ambiguity resolution.
The resulting structure is conscious and represents ones understanding of the gist of a picture or the meaning of a sentence. Further studies (Lombardi and Potter, 1992; Potter and Lombardi, 1998) indicated that syntactic priming from having processed the sentence plays a role in the syntactic accuracy of sentence recall.
The visual system is built on converging information, with learning playing a major role, at least at higher levels in the visual system (e.g., DiCarlo et al., 2012), enabling familiar combinations of features to converge on an interpretation in a single forward pass.
However, there is no syntactic parser in LSA and it is clear from RSVP research that we do parse rapidly presented sentences as we read; thus, the LSA approach is at best a partial model of processing in CSTM. Potter, M. C., and Jiang, Y. V. (2009).
Lombardi, L., and Potter, M. C. (1992). Rev. Thus, context can bias word and non-word perception even when reading at 10 words/s. Consistent with the CSTM hypothesis, there is both behavioral and ERP evidence that stimuli that are not reported because of an AB are nonetheless momentarily comprehended, because they activate an ERP mismatch marker when they are inconsistent with prior context (Luck et al., 1996). Temporal numerosity estimates for word lists. Anchor forest castle oven stocking [look away and write down the sentence]. Learn. Atten. But a second target letter (T2) that arrives soon after the first one is likely to be missed, suggesting that a selected target (T1) requires additional processing beyond identification: Stage 2 processing. Immediate recall of RSVP lists of 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 nouns presented at rates between 1 and 12 words/s. This method was used in many of the studies cited in the present review. Psychol.
Sereno, S. C., and Rayner, K. (1992). Potter, M. C., Kroll, J. F., and Harris, C. (1980). The regeneration of syntax in short term memory. Lang. Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP): a method for studying language processing, in New Methods in Reading Comprehension Research, eds D. Kieras, and M. Just (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum), 91118.
(1980). Reading senseless sentences: brain potentials reflect semantic incongruity. For unrelated words a typical memory span is five or six words. Baddeley, A.
J. Exp.
Bull. This ability to pick the right word was evident both when the relevant context arrived before the double words and when it arrived later (up to 1 s later, in one experiment), showing that readers could activate and maintain two distinct lexical possibilities. Miyake, A., Just, M. A., and Carpenter, P. A. Note that when we presented a real word in the biased sentences, it was always the mismatching word.
7 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Introduction: Conceptual Short Term Memory, Summary: Rapid Conceptual Processing Followed by Rapid Forgetting, Implications for the Relation between Perception and Cognition, Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA. Ericsson, K. A., and Kintsch, W. (1995). In the present account, perception is continuous with cognition.
This structured representation is consolidated into LTM if time permits. Psychol. Potter, M. C. (1999). Percept. 10, 435441. A simple way to limit processing time for visual stimuli is to use a single visual mask, immediately after a brief presentation. He varied the syntactic complexity of the sentences and showed that recall was less accurate for more complex sentences, implying that sentence syntax was processed as sentences were read (Forster, 1970; Holmes and Forster, 1972). Psychol.
Eye movements and on-line comprehension processes, in The Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics, ed. Perform. From the moment the pattern of a falling cup appears on the retina (to take one example) to the moment when one reaches to catch it, a series of events has passed through the visual system and to the motor system by way of the conceptual and goal-directed systems, at every stage influenced by prior experience already represented in these systems.
(1986). Rapid structuring can only occur if the material permits it and if the skills for discovering latent structure are highly practiced: object and word recognition, lexical retrieval, sentence parsing, causal inference, search for a target, and the like. Adapted from Figure 1 in Potter (1976). In another study (Potter et al., 1998) two orthographically distinct words were presented simultaneously (one above and one below a row of asterisks) in the course of an RSVP sentence, as illustrated below.
This interval during which second target detection drops dramatically was termed an AB by Raymond et al.
6, 112. Lexical access during sentence comprehension: (re)consideration of context effects. Perceptual and conceptual masking of pictures. Sentence context had a massive influence on selection: the appropriate word was included in recall in 70% of the sentences and the non-matching word in only 13%.
Figure 4. (2010). 11. Lang. Loftus, G. R., Hanna, A. M., and Lester, L. (1988). Loftus, G. R., and Ginn, M. (1984).
Psychol. (1983).
Percept. Before addressing the question of how rapidly presented sentences are retained, one should address the prior question of why sentences heard or read at normal rates are easy to repeat immediately, even when they are two or three times as long as ones memory span (the length of list that can be repeated accurately). At the same time, there was a marked main effect of rate: recall declined as rate of presentation increased, from 37% of the idea units at 4 words/s to 26% at 8 words/s to 20% at 12 words/s, averaging over all topic conditions.
Psychol.
Baddeley, A. Even these worked-over thoughts may advance by recycling the data through CSTM until the next step comes to mind. When there is an uninterrupted sequence of targets, as happens when a sentence is presented and recalled as a whole, there is no AB, whereas if the task is to report just the two words in a sentence that are marked by color or by case, as in the following example, there is an AB (Potter et al., 2008). Non-words were reported as the biased-toward word (here, duck) on 40% of the trials, compared with only 12% with the neutral sentence and 3% with the biased-against sentence (the non-words were reported correctly as non-words on 23% of the neutral trials). Conceptually defined targets can be detected in a stream of non-targets presented at rates of 810 items/s or higher, showing that categorical information about a written word or picture is activated and then selected extremely rapidly. Paper presented at the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Minneapolis. Working Memory.
Because almost all sentences one normally encounters (and all the sentences in these experiments) include new combinations of ideas, structure-building is not simply a matter of locating a previously encountered pattern in LTM: it involves the instantiation of a new relationship among existing concepts.
Sci. In studies in which unrelated photographs are presented in RSVP, viewers can readily detect a picture when given a brief descriptive title such as wedding or two men talking, at rates of presentation up to about 10 pictures/s, even though they have never seen that picture before and an infinite number of different pictures could fit the description (Potter, 1976; Intraub, 1981; see Figure 2 and Potter (2009) Demo 1 for a demonstration).
Neutral: The visitors noticed the deck/duck/dack by the house, Biased: The child fed the deck/dack at the pond, The sailor washed the duck/dack of that vessel.. Outside of the laboratory, we usually have control over the rate of presentation: we normally read at a rate sufficient not only for momentary comprehension, but also for memory of at least the gist of what we are reading. 12, 460465. Potter, M. C., Moryadas, A., Abrams, I., and Noel, A.
The power of converging cues, familiar to any crossword puzzle fan, is likely to be central to structure-building in CSTM. Perform. Davenport, J. L. (2007). Rapid conceptual identification of sequentially presented pictures. Three interrelated phenomena give evidence for CSTM: (1) There is rapid access to conceptual (semantic) information about a stimulus and its associations.
J. Mem. Potter, M. C. (1993). Figure 3. In the experiments, half the participants had lure words like castle on the word list, and half did not, allowing us to show that people are more likely to make the substitution when that word has appeared recently. Landauer, T. K., and Dumais, S. T. (1997).
Thus, gist can be extracted rapidly, but is quickly forgotten if the presentation was brief and was followed by other stimuli.
81, 1015.
Systematic reasoning, problem solving, recollection, and planning are slower and more effortful, however.
Wyble, B., Potter, M., Bowman, H., and Nieuwenstein, M. (2011). Appl. 33, 241248. With five words, recall accuracy declined from a mean of 4.5 at the 1 s rate to 2.6 words at the rate of 12 words/s This was evidently not because participants could not recognize each of the words at that rate, because a list of just two words (followed by a mask) was recalled almost perfectly at 12/s: instead, some additional process is necessary to stabilize the words in short term memory. J. Exp.
Potter, M. C., Staub, A., and OConnor, D. H. (2002).
Rev. Probability (corrected for chance) of recognizing a picture as a function of relative serial position in the test, separately for a group given pictures in the recognition test and one given titles. As shown in studies reviewed above, searching for a specific target in an RSVP sequence can be easy even at high rates of presentation, whereas simply remembering all the items in the presentation can be difficult, if they are unrelated.
Clearly, even though there was internal evidence that discourse-level structuring was occurring at all rates of presentation, some process of consolidation was beginning to fail as rate increased.
Potter, M. C., DellAcqua, R., Pesciarelli, F., Job, R., Peressotti, F., and OConnor, D. H. (2005). Budiu, R., and Anderson, J. R. (2004). Science 174, 307311. In the present study and in the case of ambiguous words the process of activation and selection appears to occur unconsciously for the most part, an issue considered in a later section. Percept.
In the case of sentences, it is evident that parsing and conceptual interpretation must occur virtually word by word, because any substantial delay would outrun the persistence of unstructured material in CSTM.
30, 478489.
Structuring in CSTM is not different in principle from individual steps in the slower processes of comprehension that happen as one gradually understands a difficult text or an initially confusing picture, or solves a chess problem over a period of seconds and minutes. 
Baddeley notes that this idea is similar to CSTM as it was described in 1993 (Potter, 1993). Thus, recall is guided by a conceptual representation, not by a special verbatim representation such as a phonological representation.
J. Exp. Potter, M. C., and Levy, E. I. If a test picture is presented immediately after the sequence, however, viewers are usually able to recognize it, even if the pictures have been presented at a rate such as 6/s (Potter et al., 2004). Potter, M. C., Wyble, B., Pandav, R., and Olejarczyk, J.
Sperling, G. (1960). The articulatory loop system that provides a limited, rehearsable phonological short term memory (STM) is separate from CSTM.
10, 680698. The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions.
Mem. Eye tracking studies have shown that the length of time that the eyes rest on a given word varies with the frequency of that word, its predictability at that point in the text, and other factors that indicate that the words meaning and its fit to the context is retrieved fast enough to affect whether the eyes linger on that word or move on (for a review, see Staub and Rayner, 2007). Psychol. Conceptual masking: the effects of subsequent visual events on memory for pictures.
The first to try this was Forster, who presented short sentences at 16 words/s, three times faster than a typical good reader would read spontaneously. 74. Short-term visual memory.
Pictures in sentences: understanding without words. Davenport, J. L., and Potter, M. C. (2005).
(2000). But CSTM structuring occurs with a relative absence of awareness that alternatives have been weighed and that several possibilities have been considered and rejected, at least implicitly. Hum. Learn.
The key idea behind CSTM is that most cognitive processing occurs without review or rehearsal of material in standard working memory and with little or no conscious reasoning. Working Memory, Thought, and Action. 31, 713733.
35, 393401. Mem. Subjects were asked to report the other word (the mismatching word) after they recalled the sentence, but most of the time they were unable to do so, showing that the unselected word was usually forgotten rapidly.
Adapted from Figure 1 in Potter (1993). The sentence was implausible with one of the meanings, plausible with the other. (2007).
The sentence was presented at 10 words/s. Swinney, D. A.
The recaller regenerates the sentence using normal speech-production processes to express the propositional structure (what the sentence means).
Visual short term memory (VSTM) holds a limited amount of visual information (about four items worth) and is somewhat resistant to interference from new stimulation as long as the information is attended to (Coltheart, 1983; Phillips, 1983; Luck and Vogel, 1997; Potter and Jiang, 2009).
Fast priming during eye fixations in reading. And, by hypothesis, report requires some form of consolidation; therefore, only what persists in a structured form will be reportable.
Figure 5. Instead of measuring eye movements when reading, one can use RSVP to control the time available for processing each word in a sentence. Whether such self-generated perceptual images are the heart of cognition (as embodiment theories suggest) or only play a supporting role, is in dispute, however. This hinted at the sort of process that might stabilize or structure information in CSTM. Eye fixations on text and scenes, in Eye Movements in Reading: Perceptual and Language Processes, ed. Further evidence for the extraction of gist when viewing a rapid sequence of pictures is that viewers are more likely to falsely recognize a new picture with the same gist than a new picture with an unrelated gist. V. Coltheart (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 1346. In one of the Potter and Lombardi (1990) experiments the sentences were presented at a rate of 10 words/s, rather than the moderate 5 words/s of our other experiments: the intrusion results were essentially the same, showing that the relevant conceptual processing had occurred at the higher rate, also. The idea is to replace or interfere with continued processing of the stimulus by presenting a new image that will occupy the same visual processors. Learn. Authorization for the use of experimental animals or human subjects: The experimental studies described here were approved by the Internal Review Board of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and all participants signed consent forms. Lawrence, D. H. (1971b). Only one sentence mentioned the one-word topic (e.g., laundry), and this sentence appeared either at the beginning, the middle, or the end of the paragraph, or was omitted. To evaluate both single-word perception and use of discourse-level information, paragraphs were used that appeared to be ambiguous and poorly integrated unless the reader knew the topic (see Dooling and Lachman, 1971; Bransford and Johnson, 1972).
Conceptual short term memory is built on experience and learned skills.
(1992).
Cogn. Vogel, E. K., Luck, S. J., and Shapiro, K. L. (1998).
Psychophys.
Conceptual masking: how one picture captures attention from another picture. Interpretation-based processing: a unified theory of semantic sentence processing. The locus of semantic priming in RSVP target search.
Percept. Again, this illustrates the existence of fast and powerful processors that can build syntactically and pragmatically appropriate structures from briefly activated material, leaving unselected material to be rapidly forgotten. J. Exp. 22, 293301. Psychol. Psychol. Psychology 3:113. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00113.
Before continuing, try reading the sentence below once, cover it, and then read the five words on the next line, look away, and write down the sentence from memory. In vision, iconic memory (Sperling, 1960) maintains a detailed visual representation for up to about 300 ms, but it is eliminated by new visual stimulation.
here.
CSTM may be regarded as a generalized capacity for rapid abstraction, pattern recognition, and inference that is embodied in a more specific form in models such as ACT-R (e.g., Budiu and Anderson, 2004), the constructionintegration model of discourse comprehension (Kintsch, 1988), the theory of long term working memory (Ericsson and Kintsch, 1995); and models of reading comprehension (e.g., Just and Carpenter, 1992; see Potter et al., 1980; Verhoeven and Perfetti, 2008).
In contrast, when short lists of unrelated words are presented at that rate, only two or three words can be recalled (see also Lawrence, 1971a). Trans.
What seemed to happen was that the feature (color or case) that defined the target was detected, but in the AB interval that feature was displaced to a different word: the AB interfered with the binding of the target feature to the correct word. USA: Oxford University Press.
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory. Surprisingly, the target words were highly likely to be reported as part of the sentence even when the participant could not mark them correctly. (1983).
That is, having understood the conceptual proposition in a sentence, one can simply express that idea in words, as one might express a new thought.
Working memory constraints on the resolution of lexical ambiguity: maintaining multiple interpretations in neutral contexts. Learn. J. Mem. Seemingly immediate understanding is more likely for material that is familiar, as becomes evident when one learns a new language or a new skill such as chess. Picture memory includes understanding of the gist of a picture, not just specific visual features, as shown by the ability of viewers to call a picture to mind when given a descriptive title as a recognition cue. In consequence, the sentence is normally recalled verbatim. A major source of evidence for these claims comes from studies using RSVP sentences, compared with scrambled sentences or lists of unrelated words. 104, 211240.
Two studies of visual search for word targets with controlled rates of presentation.
J. Exp. Clauses and the semantic representation of words. Thus, much of CSTM activation, selection, and structuring happens before one becomes aware. The AB is relevant to CSTM because it provides evidence for rapid access to categorical information about rapidly presented items and at the same time shows that selective processing of specified targets has a cost. Psychophys. J. Verbal Learn.
Working memory. (We will come back to this exercise shortly.).
Conceptual short term memory (CSTM) is a construct based on the observation that most cognitive processing occurs without review or rehearsal of material in standard working memory and with little or no conscious reasoning. Conceptual short term memory is the working memory that supports these processes, lasting just long enough to allow multiple interpretation to be considered before one is selected and the remaining elements evaporate, in most cases without entering awareness. However, Stage 2 processing is serial and limited in capacity.
Participants recalled the sentence; they were told to report misspelled words or non-words if they saw them.
99, 122149. Evidently the continuous attention associated with processing the sentence included the inserted digits, allowing them to be selected afterward rather than during initial processing.
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